The Duhem

Introduction Scientific proposition necessitates more than one insinuation to the situation in order to be analyzed practically. Through segregation, it may not be feasible to experiment any scientific hypothesis as stipulated by the problem raised by Duhem–Quine (Duhem-Quine thesis).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Duhem-Quine specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The thesis presented by Duhem-Quine may also refer to the auxiliary hypotheses or assumptions. In essence, predictions cannot be made easily through this thesis (Curd Cover 1998, p. 10). However, a number of typical postulations in the surroundings would be a boost to obtaining predictions from the correct hypotheses. For instance, it is feasible to derive any prediction once there is perfect scientific information in the preceding hypothesis and if the actual test works as premeditated. In fact, when studying the planet, astronomic and physical theories take into account facts and proofs of the notion that the world is in a continuous motion. The malfunctioning of both the background assumptions and the hypothesis may perhaps lead to the falsification, as well as examination of the experimental scientists. According to the thesis presented by Duhem-Quine, the separation of a solitary hypothesis from the entire package of hypotheses is not achievable. Besides, researchers are faced with a single solution to the predicament. Thus, failure of the empirical tests increases the likelihood of scientists to think otherwise. Actually, researchers would think that the examined theory is wrong even if the assumptions at the background are believed to be accurate. Thus, chapter three of the Philosophy of Science basically offers simple and analytical techniques that are coherent in heightening and developing physical sciences. All these are developed in divergent sections, which include the portion that talks about the formation of a corporal principle. The other portion concentrates on the subject matter and aims of the corporal principle. Thus, the Quine-Duhem states that it is not possible to examine any scientific theory through isolation owing to an experiential examination of the hypothesis that needs more than one contextual assumption.Advertising Looking for essay on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Main Body Basically, Duhem’s point necessarily leads to the incommensurability thesis. There are several justifications to support this claim. According to Duham-Quine’s Philosophy of Science, the indeterminacy of translation is incompatible with the rendition manuals for any language. In fact, the manuals can be arranged in a system where there is no impartially exact choice. A powerful variety of empiricisms required for affirmatively necessary or confident basis of credence through inductive verification was ruthlessly crit icized by Duham and Popper. The declaration is intrinsically covered by Martin Curd and Christopher Pincock in the Philosophy of Science. Quine stated that there are scientific theories that are irreconcilable yet they are practically correspondent. Specifically, the theory states that there is a connection between propositions that express pertinent proof and suggestions that comprise the theory. The logic behind this theory is that recurring annotations of white swans do not prevent the likelihood of the survival of black swans. In essence, the peak point in the distortion is the fundamental testing. According to Quine (1986), the testing can be carried out if two contradictory suppositions predict diverse results in some solid situations. When the condition arises through tentative management or opportune combination of intrinsic occurrences, the outcome amid the competitors may be one or another. The hypothesis raised doubts regarding the reason for distortion, hence the influen tial character of critical testing. When investigating the subject, Quine states that the results of any testing are not envisaged on the foundation of a single thesis only since supplementary theses are involved. The outcomes are often challenging and are not primarily regarded as threatened, when the thesis of concern is examined.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Duhem-Quine specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Nonetheless, if the results of the testing are not envisaged, it is rationally probable that the thesis under examination is correct and the inaccuracy reclines in one or more of the supplementary examinations (Gillies 1993, p. 7). The Duhem-Quine problem examines the representation and classification of experimental regulations. The objective of all impartial hypotheses is the depiction of investigational regulations. The terms â€Å"truth† and â€Å"certainty† possess a single implication with regard to such a thesis. The terms articulate concordance amid the termination of the thesis and the regulations recognized by the observer. Furthermore a rule of physics is only the synopsis of perpetuity of trials that have been conducted or shall be conducted in future (Quine 1954, p. 3). Fundamentally, Duhem’s argument regarding experimental laws essentially leads to the incommensurability theory. According to this author, a sound thesis offers an acceptable depiction of tentative laws. He stated that the conformity to the experiment is the only criteria of reality for a physical thesis. The author acknowledged four consecutive operations in the expansion of such a thesis. They include the description and gauging of physical magnitudes. In this, he identified the easiest characteristics of physical procedures and articulated the choosing of hypothesis. He also accounted for the interconnection devised in prior stages and articulated the arithmetical progression of t he thesis. This level is guided simply by the constraints of arithmetical reason devoid of physical realism. Finally, he articulated the evaluation of the thesis with experimentation. The Duhem-Quine theory is critically concerned with falsification. The philosophy offers the methodology that develops the uncertainty of repudiation. Inherently, the author states that when a physicist opposes a certain principle, he or she contributes some uncertainty to a specific hypothetical point.Advertising Looking for essay on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this view, he hypothetically creates the justification for these doubts. From the proposal under arraignment, scientists will develop the forecasting of an investigational detail. Consequently, he or she will take into consideration circumstances under which the investigational detail should be developed. When the anticipated detail is not developed, the proposal which acted as the foundation of the estimation will be condemned. He explored the Bayesian turn in identifying the outstanding characteristics of distortion when accounting for the research program in view of various challenges. As a result, Quine observed that the Bayesian outline is not hinged on the valuation of impartial prospects in the first instance. The Bayesians begin with the likelihoods that are allocated to philosophies by experts (Lakatos 1978, p. 12). In this case, there are disagreements among different Bayesians. Basically, the disagreements concern how the likelihoods are assigned. It does not matter if biased belief is applied or is subjected to individuals’ behavior. Consequently, the author introduces the Bayes’s Theorem as formulated below. P(h!e) = P(e!h)P(h) where P(h), and P(e) 0 P(e) In this condition, he was concerned with the integrity of the theory h in comparison with experiential confirmation e. This means that the ensuing probability regarding the entirety of the evidence can be articulated. When written in the above form, the theorem states that the probability of the hypothesis’ provisional confirmation is equivalent to the prospect of the proof’s provision in the theory reproduced by the prospect of the theory in the absence of the confirmation factor. The result is then alienated by the possibility of the confirmation (Curd Cover 1998, p. 3). Conclusion The paper reviewed Duhem-Quine thesis expansion as presented by Gillies. In this paper, the fundamental modification by Quine and the traditional formulation of the postulation by Duh em have been observed. In fact, when predictions fail, the reasoning is that the concurrence of numerous hypotheses in a rational presumption disqualifies the unambiguous acknowledgment of error. Hence, it undercuts the attractive reasoning in critical research as a way of deciding amid rival theories. Duhem-Quine thesis has not blocked the development of science since neither Quine, nor Duhem predicted such a result. Interestingly, the thesis has aggravated lively discussions and the reconsideration of boundaries of common sense and the drawbacks in naive observations as offered by evidence collision. In general, Duhem never argued about the probability of conducting experiment to disprove theories. However, the scholar emphasized that the disclaimers plunged upon schemes of theories while the examination of experience was no longer instantaneous and straight. The series of circumstances transpiring from scientific decision-making rule out any simple or solitary solution to the fal sification ambiguity. There is an understandable background that is suitable to warrant safety in the experimental outcomes. Based on other instances, scientific problem is less specific. Consequently, different works will possibly offer solutions to the thesis. Duhem-Quine thesis is moreover posed in a modus that is uncooperative. Yet, the reliability on science anchors on instantaneous negations or confirmations. Duhem gives us a more convincing standpoint regarding his discharge of prompt rationality. Thus, the understanding of Duhem-Quine problem stipulates that scientists should not rush into conclusions when choosing between systems theory. References Curd, M Cover, J 1998, Philosophy of science: the central issues, Norton and Company, London. Gillies, D 1993, Philosophy of science in the twentieth century: four central themes, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. Lakatos, I 1978, â€Å"Why did copernicus’s research programme supersede ptolemy’s?† Philosophical Papers, vol. 1 no. 3, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Quine, O 1986, Reply to Jules Vuillemin the philosophy of W. V. Quine, Library of Living Philosophers, Open Court, La Salle. This essay on The Duhem-Quine was written and submitted by user Krystal Park to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The eNotes Blog 15 Books to Give You theFeels

15 Books to Give You theFeels Lets face it: sometimes you need to cry it out. Sometimes youre in the mood for a lighthearted beach-read, and thats all well and good, but there are other times when youre looking for a deep story that can really get you going and start the tears flowing. Then again, even if youre not the kind of person who cries a lot (there are some who express their emotions in other ways, to be sure), then at the very least, we can all but guarantee youll find yourself moved by the following titles. The Book Thief by Markus Zusak Set in Nazi Germany, it sadly makes sense that this story would take on the figure of Death as its unusual narrator. Through this dark narrators eyes, the reader follows the story of a young girl enamored with words, a Jewish boy in hiding, a new mother, and an accordion-playing man as they fight for safety and survival during WWII. When a book basically opens with the line youre going to die you can bet it will either be scary or moving- in this case, the latter. The Art of Racing in the Rain  by Garth Stein This novel is told from the point of view of a dog, so you can assume right off the bat that its going to be open, honest, and probably bittersweet. The story starts on the last day of our furry protagonists life, and we are treated to the recollections of his life. Its a story of love, loss, family, and a man fighting for his daughter. Undoubtedly, its a sad story, but all the same its strangely very uplifting. A must-read for dog lovers anywhere and everywhere. A Thousand Splendid Suns by Khaled Hosseini By the same author who brought us The  Kite Runner,  A Thousand Splendid Suns is about a young, Afghani woman named Mariam. Mariam, like so many living in troubled areas, is struck with one hardship after another: an abusive father who marries her to an abusive man more than twenty years her senior and an invasion by the Soviet Army, to name a couple. A realistic portrayal of pain and strength, this novel is bound to make you empathize not only with Mariam, but also feel empowered by her strength through all she faces. My Sisters Keeper by Jodi Picoult If you want a story about some complicated family issues, then this is the story for you. Thirteen-year-old Anna Fitzgerald is born into impossible circumstances: her older sister is dying of advanced leukemia, and it has become more and more painfully clear that Anna was conceived with the intent of being a genetic match for  her sister, so that she can provide transplant organs. Of course, it isnt that cut-and-dried, and when Anna seeks medical emancipation from her parents, the entire family is forced to look into their values and determine what really matters. Me Before You by Jojo Moyer *Chances are, youve seen some previews for the new movie adaptation of this one* Lou, a former barista, finds work as a caretaker for a recently disabled, extraordinarily wealthy man. As one could imagine, the two eventually form a bond, falling in love through a series of moving encounters. Basically, as you read, you think the evolution of their romance is predictable, until all of a sudden it isnt. The two must struggle through an  impossible decision, the results of which will lead to unhappiness for one of them. As Buzzfeed reader NormaZ says, It gets your hopes up and then it crushes you like an Oreo. The Known World by Edward P. Jones Set in a tumultuous period  of American history, readers get more than a glimpse into the facets of slavery and slave ownership. Though Jones follows the lives of multiple characters, the storys primary focus is on Henry Townsend, a former slave turned slave owner who believes he would be a much better master than the white man Until he becomes one. We the Animals by Justin Torres We the Animals, though a novel, reads somewhat like a collection of short stories, with each section focusing on a different animalistic metaphor for the characters family dynamic and providing a glimpse into the life of the narrator. The story centers on three brothers living with their Puerto Rican father and white mother as they struggle through poverty. An amazing coming-of-age story, we watch as the boys grow and learn the difference between wanting more and achieving more. The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy Two fraternal twin boys, raised by a single mother in an India rife with conflict,  The God of Small Things first breaks down its characters and its readers with a string of events leading to the characters  disenchantment with life. The boys, once optimistic and in love with the world that surrounded them, find themselves facing cruel, life-changing realities and must find a way to make their peace once again. Wave by Sonali Deraniyagala Following the tsunami that struck Sri Lanka, the author and protagonist, Sonali, discovered that her entire family, their home, and all of their belongings had been lost in the tragedy. While the story is heart-wrenching and emotional all on its own, Deraniyagalas telling is full of imagery and written in a raw voice guaranteed to make you feel the loss and eventual recovery she went through. Of Love and Other Demons by Gabriel Garcà ­a Mrquez Always one to take on the surreal, Mrquez lives up to his reputation with a simultaneous look into medicine and religious beliefs and ritual as wielded by the 19th century Catholic Church. A young girl begins acting strangely and violently and is believed by her family to be suffering from demonic possession brought about by a dog bite. The young priest sent to perform  the girls exorcism finds himself in love, in spite of her behavioral abnormalities. Where the Red Fern Grows by Wilson Rawls *Personal Review: I love this book* An unusual love story,  Where the Red Fern Grows  is a tale about a boy who loves his dogs as members of the family. After saving money for years, the youth purchases his pups, Old Dan and Little Ann, and trains them to be some of the best raccoon hunters in the county. Its a story of inspiration, perseverance, family, and a boy and his beloved dogs. Its hard to write too much about this story and what makes it so poignant without giving away the story, but if you like dogs, you will love this book. In the Time of the Butterflies by Julia Alvarez Historical fiction at its finest,  In the Time of the Butterflies is a fictional account of the true story of the Mirabal sisters from the Dominican Republic. In the 1960s, the sisters were powerful activists, members of the underground movement opposing dictator Raphael Trujillo. The sisters were eventually found to have been ambushed and assassinated in their car, thus darkly emphasizing their political influence in the activists movement. If youre interested in history and political upheaval, this is a book for you. The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton A realistic, gritty story  of what life in a street gang was like during the 1960s in the United States. We are allowed  into the lives of the Greasers and their conflict with a rival gang over  the course of just a couple of days. In that brief period, we are made privy to murder, extortion, loyalty, and friendship in the most unlikely of places. Night by Elie Wiesel Another tale of WWII,  Night provides an unflinching look into the concentration camps and the sadistic tendencies of Nazis and their supporters. The book is an autobiographical account by Wiesel, detailing his survival as a teenager in a Nazi death camp. Readers feel the fear and dread of everyday torment, perversions, and hopelessness that plagued the inhabitants of Auschwitz and Buchenwald. Its a horribly upsetting story, but that in no way makes it any less worth reading. Brother, Im Dying by Edwidge Danticat Another autobiographical account, this book is about the life of a girl living with her uncle in Haiti, waiting for her parents in the United States to send for her. Over time, she becomes greatly attached to her uncle, a local preacher, and when he is diagnosed with throat cancer, she is understandably distraught and  searches  for a way to save his life. After determining that his best hope lies in American medical care, Edwidge  and her family do their best to negotiate everyone into the country. What follows is a story of familial devotion and unfortunate government oppression.

Advancements in IS hardware and software Research Paper

Advancements in IS hardware and software - Research Paper Example on sector has experienced a number of changes in the last five years and that forms the basis of discussion in the text with a focus on IS hardware and software (Baltzan & Phillips, 2009). Over the past five years, information system hardware has tremendously transformed in terms of effectiveness and efficiency. To begin with, the computer processors have been enhanced to the extent that they have increased speed and performance. Computer processors have the capabilities of processing large bulk of information by responding to the instructions as appropriate. Moreover, the hardware memories are able to store large data before they are processed (Baltzan & Phillips, 2009). In the past, the memory was restricted to a certain capacity to the extent that once the limited space was occupied, no data or information could be stored. The IS hardware have been transformed with enhanced capabilities, making them compatible with other components. It has become possible to integrate hardware and software components for effective communication of the various elements of an information system (Baltzan & Phillips, 2009). Information system software has had an impressive run in the business world in the last five years due to a number of changes. Most of the IS software has been developed to meet specific needs in the market. Case in point is that a number of the components are today developed for financial purposes, data evaluation and analysis. The specifications have simplified the use of the softwares. Consequently, IS software is compatible with most of the hardware components and this has made it possible to employ any information system material without any restrictions (Cockburn, 2008). The communication between the various components of a software have been simplified due to enhanced performance and effectiveness. Software designs have changed, making them more user friendly and easy to adapt (Cockburn, 2008). Moreover, the quality of the IS software has changed

Changing Workplace Culture through team leadership Research Paper

Changing Workplace Culture through team leadership - Research Paper Example Workplace culture is a very essential factor in the success of organizations because it determines the levels of employee motivation, and performance thereby influencing organizational performance accordingly. It is in the least incentive of any organization to have employees that are unengaged and ill motivated because this inevitably leads to low organizational outputs. The organizational leadership culture, the system of unspoken norms and assumptions that govern how managers operate, is unescapably a powerful and distinct element in the organizational culture. The fast changing and complex business environment today requires organizations to operate at a strategic position that matches the complexities and uncertainties presented to them to ensure sustained growth and success. In this regard, every organization needs to thoroughly assess its strategic leadership culture as the first step in moving towards the establishment of a culture that powerfully steer the organizational goa ls and objectives against all odds in the business environments. ... This has led to the move towards considering a change from the current bureaucratic style of leadership to team leadership to improve employee motivation, engagement, and productivity while reducing turnover and attaining sustainability for the organization. Literature Review A considerable amount of research has been completed in validation of the relationship between organizational culture, leadership culture, and employee levels of motivation, engagement, productivity, turnover, and organizational sustainability. Largely, most of the literature available is consistent insofar as the subject is concerned, that leadership culture influences organizational culture, and a complex interplay of these two factors is more likely to yield either positive or negative outcomes on employee motivation, performance and turnover. McGuire et al 2009 contends that organizations seeking to adapt to turbulent changes taking place in the fast paced complex business world need a new kind of leadership capability to reframe dilemmas, reinterpret options, and to reform operations for sustainability (McGuire et al, 2009). Jones argues that inter-relationships between leadership team members and their behaviors with one another as well as with their staff have an influence in shaping the culture of their organizations (Jones, 2012). Corrigan et al (2002) examine the relationship between levels of transformational, transactional, and laissez-fare leadership and measures of organizational culture and burnout (Corrigan et al, 2002); leaders who rate themselves high in transformational leadership also rate their organizational cultures as transformational. Similarly, subordinates who rate their leaders high in

Impact of Feedback Environment on Employee Commitment

Impact of Feedback Environment on Employee Commitment This research paper examines the effect of feedback environment on employee commitment, with role clarity being the mediating variable in the public and private sectors organizations of Islamabad Rawalpindi city. From the previous researches a link was found between feedback environment and employee commitment at workplace, this study attempts to explore this link in the context of Islamabad. To create employee commitment amongst organizational members has become increasingly important in todayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s dynamic business environment, because this factor leads to employee retention and a low degree of turnover. For this study a sample size of 200 was taken and different private and public sector organizations were covered in the research work. The research was of hypothesis-testing in nature and responses were collected using standardized questionnaires for each variable. All three variables supervisory and coworker feedback and role clarity proved to be positively associate d with employee commitment; with the feedback from coworker source being the strongest in creating employee commitment followed by role clarity and feedback from supervisor source. The mediating effect of role clarity was not found to be significant and there is still an opportunity for further research in this area to explore this link. However the positive association of role clarity with employee commitment represents its importance in creating employee commitment, though its contribution is small, but this very dimension must not be ignored by the managers of the 21st century. Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION It has become necessary for business firms to satisfy all of their major stakeholders (consumers, employees, clients etc) to remain competitive in todayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s dynamic business environment. The satisfaction and commitment level of a firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s employees is of key importance in determining its human resource strength, which in turn leads to their retention and make an organization able to satisfy the needs of its customers, consumers and clients in both the production and service sectors. Many variables have an impact on the level of commitment of a firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s employees, some of which are job satisfaction level (with intrinsic and extrinsic factors), the quality of leader-member exchange and the overall feedback environment that an employee works in. Many researchers put emphasis on providing feedback to employees in order to satisfy them and consider providing feedback to employees to be essential for maintaining and increasing employee motivation and satisfaction. Traditionally the yearly formal performance appraisal/review in private sector organizations and Annual Confidential Report (ACR) in public sector organizations have been considered as the ideal platform for higher authorities (departmental/organizational heads, supervisors, immediate bosses) to provide feedback to employees about how they view their performance. But employees generally report problems and shortfalls regarding the current methodologies used to asses their performance and characterize the overall process as being too much restricted to a performance appraisal period and involving only one feedback source (departmental/organizational heads, supervisors, and immediate bosses). A qualitative case study by Longenecker and Nykodym (1996) in the public sector illustrated some of the problems associated with traditional performance appraisal method. Employees noted that feedback in performance appraisal was problematic for improving employee motivation and performance, and as a communications tool to improve the manager/subordinate relationship and suggested that managers should: make more time available for providing performance feedback, increase their knowledge of actual performance, better clarify performance expectations, put greater emphasis on employee development, not dwell on negatives, provide more ongoing feedback, and increase two-way communication These suggestions indicate that supervisors/immediate bosses might adopt a number of specific behaviors to support feedback processes in the organization, which in turn might lead to an enhanced manager/subordinate relationship and increased employee satisfaction and hence employee commitment. Here we can see that feedback only after some specified interval and through formal sessions is not sufficient to improve work outcomes (job satisfaction, productivity, employee commitment, organizational citizenship behavior etc). Considering this very fact; Steelman, Levy and Snell (2004) proposed a scale, known as Feedback Environment Scale (FES) with a validation study to demonstrate how different facets of feedback sources (supervisor and coworkers) constitute the overall feedback environment within an organization. This new instrument measures a much more comprehensive view of the feedback environment and is more relevant to the organizations of today and the responsibilities of 21st-cent ury managers. FES may also be defined as a multifaceted construct with two major factors (Supervisor and Coworker) manifested in seven facets. Together, these seven facets reflect the contextual aspects surrounding the transmission of job performance feedback on a recurrent or daily basis (Steelman et al, 2004). In general; Employee commitment is oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s psychological attachment to his or her organizations. The higher the level of Employee Commitment of an individual, the lower are the chances of his/her psychological and physical job withdrawal. Moreover; committed employees are generally productive and go beyond their job descriptions in improving their organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s products and services. Researchers have found a positive link between Feedback Environment Scale and Employee commitment. This link is mediated by a third variable called Role Clarity, which is defined as the subjective feeling of having as much or not as much role relevant information as the person would like to have Lyons (1971). This study is aimed to explore this link in a Pakistani context and more specifically in the context of Islamabad, After the confirmation of such a link, mangers can adopt a number of measures to improve employeesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ satisfaction, their level of productivity and employee commitment. Research Objectives To measure the level of performance feedback (from supervisors and coworkers) received by the employees of different organizations, both of public and private sector operating in Islamabad city. To Measure the level of employee commitment of employees working in different organizations To explore the link between feedback environment and employee commitment To suggest specific measures to be adopted in order to increase the overall feedback environment and employee commitment in organizations Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Feedback Environment In the past, the feedback environment has been defined as the type of job performance information that employees perceive as being available to them (Herold Parsons, 1985).but according to the refined and most up-to-date definition; the feedback environment refers to the contextual aspects of day-to-day supervisor-subordinate and coworker-coworker feedback processes rather than to the formal performance appraisal feedback session (Steelman et al, 2004). Consequently, up to now, an organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s feedback environment has been defined as the amount and availability of positive and negative feedback from different sources (Steelman et al, 2004). 2.2 Measurement of Feedback Environment Feedback environment in an organization is measured through a new multifaceted instrument, the Feedback Environment Scale (FES), which helps inform the feedback process in organizations. This new instrument measures a much more comprehensive view of the feedback environment and is more relevant to the organizations of today and the responsibilities of 21st-century managers. FES may also be defined as a multifaceted construct with two major factors (Supervisor and Coworker) manifested in seven facets. Together, these seven facets reflect the contextual aspects surrounding the transmission of job performance feedback on a recurrent or daily basis (Steelman et al, 2004). It is clear that employees receive feedback information from various sources (Greller, 1980; Morrison, 1993) but some authors suggest that supervisor and coworker feedback sources are the most practical and relevant from the feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s point of view (Ashford, 1989). Thus, the FES postulates two factors called Supervisor Source and Coworker Source and the following seven specific facets within each of those source factors: source credibility, feedback quality, feedback delivery, frequency of favorable feedback, frequency of unfavorable feedback, source availability, and promoting feedback seeking (Steelman et al, 2004). Source Credibility is conceptualized as the feedback sourceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s expertise and trustworthiness (Giffin, 1967). Consistency and usefulness have been demonstrated to be important aspects of feedback quality (Greller, 1980; Hanser Muchinsky, 1978; Herold, Liden, Leatherwood, 1987). A feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s perceptions of the sourceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s intentions in giving feedback will affect reactions and responses to the feedback (Fedor, Eder, Buckley, 1989). Favorable feedback is conceptualized as the perceived frequency of positive feedback such as compliments from supervisors and/or coworkers when from the feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view, his or her performance does in fact warrant positive feedback. Correspondingly, unfavorable feedback is conceptualized as the perceived frequency of negative feedback such as expressions of dissatisfaction and criticism from supervisors and/or coworkers when from the feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s vi ew, his or her performance warrants such feedback (Steelman et al, 2004). Supervisor and/or coworker source availability is operationalized as the perceived amount of contact an employee has with his or her supervisor and/or coworkers and the ease with which feedback can be obtained (Steelman et al, 2004). Feedback seeking is defined as the extent to which the environment is supportive or unsupportive of feedback seeking. It is the extent to which employees are encouraged or rewarded for seeking feedback and the degree to which employees feel comfortable asking for performance feedback (Williams et al, 1999). 2.3 Role Clarity Lyons (1971) defines role clarity as the subjective feeling of having as much or not as much role relevant information as the person would like to have. The importance of having role clarity (knowing the tasks and expectations of a job) has been shown in previous research that used both emotional and performance-related measures (Abramis, 1994; Jackson Schuler, 1985; Tubre Collins, 2000). Role clarity is a prerequisite for harmonious interactions with others in the role set (Mcgrath, 1976). The absence of role clarity leads to stress, intrapersonal tension and lowered job satisfaction (Cooper, Sloan Williams, 1988; Hall, 2004). Breaugh Colihan (1994) defined role ambiguity to be job ambiguity and indicated that job ambiguity possesses three distinct aspects: work methods, scheduling, and performance criteria. 2.4 Employee Commitment It is recognized that an employees commitment to an organization can be expressed in three particular ways: affective, continuance, and normative. Affective commitment is focused on an emotional attachment to the organization (Herscovitch, 2002). On the other hand, continuance commitment is when an employee stays with an organization based on a perceived cost of leaving (Herscovitch, 2002). In this case, the employee is staying because he/she thinks it will cost more to go find work elsewhere. Lastly, normative commitment refers to an employees moral obligation to stay with the organization (Herscovitch, 2002). This can arise due to the employee feeling that the organization has treated him/her well and therefore, he/she owes the organization a continued period of employment. In one sense, each type of commitment somewhat ties the individual to the organization; however, each impacts differently on the manner in which the employee conducts him/herself in the workplace. For example, a n employee with an affective commitment will often go above and beyond what is required of his/her position in order to assist the organization in meeting its goals. Employees with high affective commitment tend to be absent from work less frequently and display a higher work motivation and organizational citizenship (McShane, 2001). Continuance commitment, however, is negatively related to performance whereby employees tend to do simply what is required, have higher rates of absenteeism, and low motivation (Johns and Saks, 1996). 2.5 Feedback Environment, Role Clarity/Ambiguity and Employee Commitment Over recent years, there has been a surge of interest in the effects of the feedback environment on work-related outcomes (e.g. Norris-Watts Levy, 2004; Rosen et al., 2006). A favorable feedback environment is positively related to supervisory reported organizational citizenship behavior and that this relationship is partially mediated by affective commitment (Norris-Watts Levy, 2004). Another study tested a mediated model suggesting that the effects of the feedback environment on job satisfaction, and supervisory rated in-role and extra-role performance are mediated by perceptions of organizational politics. In general, this model was supported, again demonstrating the relationship between the feedback environment and several work-related outcomes (Rosen et al., 2006). A field experiment conducted by Tziner and Latham (1989) revealed increased work satisfaction and employee commitment when a goal-setting and feedback program was introduced, but it is not possible to draw the concl usion that this effect emanates from feedback only. Researchers have found a relationship between feedback and role ambiguity (Herold et al, 1987, Peiro et al, 1994, Sawyer, 1992, Teas, 1983, Vredenburgh, 1983). So, even though previous studies lend support to the hypothesis that feedback affects attitudes towards work, there is also a possibility that the uncertainty reducing effect of feedback is the link between feedback and work attitudes, through the intervening influence of role ambiguity. Resultantly, there is also support to hypothesize that feedback only indirectly affects attitude towards work with role ambiguity as a mediating variable (Anders et al, 1999). Mathieu Zajac (1990) conducted a meta-analysis of 48 studies and found that overall employee commitment was low when employees were unsure about what was expected of them (Role Ambiguity). In nine studies, Dunham, Grube, Castaneda (1994) found that employees understanding about the significance of their tasks were somewhat positively related to affective commitment, but not related to normative or continuance commitment. Workers need role clarity to be able to navigate on their own. To improve the opportunity for self feedback there appears a need to strengthen the connection between the individualà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s work and the organizational goals (Anders et al, 1999). Chapter 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK On the basis of literature review, a relationship between feedback environment and employee commitment was found, being mediated by a third variable, Role Clarity. The following hypothetical link between the variables was drawn and tested. 3.1 Operational Definitions 3.1.1 Feedback Environment (Independent Variable) Feedback Environment has been taken as the independent variable for this study which is defined by Steelman et al (2004) as the amount and availability of positive and negative feedback from different sources. As the feedback environment in organizations is generally measured using the Feedback environment Scale (FES) proposed by Steelman et al (2004), the same will be employed to measure the quality of feedback environment that takes into account two major feedback sources which are: Supervisor source Coworker source Feedback from each source has seven dimensions which are: 3.1.1.1- Source credibility Giffin (1967) defined source credibility as the feedback sourceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s expertise and trustworthiness. Perception of trustworthiness an individual imparts to other people. Factors that influence source credibility are expertise and reputation for honesty. 3.1.1.2- Feedback quality Feedback quality refers to its consistency and usefulness which are important aspects of feedback (Greller, 1980; Hanser Muchinsky, 1978; Herold, Liden, Leatherwood, 1987). 3.1.1.3- Feedback delivery It refers to the feedback environment in terms of sourceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s consideration and intentions in his or her delivery of the feedback (Steelman et al 2004). In simple words this dimension is related to the extent of empathy of the feedback source. 3.1.1.4- Favorable feedback Steelman et al (2004) defined favorable feedback as the perceived frequency of positive feedback such as compliments from supervisors and/or coworkers when from the feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view, his or her performance does in fact warrant positive feedback 3.1.1.5- Unfavorable feedback Unfavorable feedback is conceptualized as the perceived frequency of negative feedback such as expressions of dissatisfaction and criticism from supervisors and/or coworkers when from the feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view, his or her performance warrants such feedback (Steelman et al, 2004). 3.1.1.6- Source availability Supervisor and/or coworker source availability is defined as the perceived amount of contact an employee has with his or her supervisor and/or coworkers and the ease with which feedback can be obtained (Steelman et al, 2004). 3.1.1.7- Promoting feedback seeking Williams et al (1999) defined Feedback seeking is defined as the extent to which the environment is supportive or unsupportive of feedback seeking. It is the extent to which employees are encouraged or rewarded for seeking feedback and the degree to which employees feel comfortable asking for performance feedback Responses about each dimension relating to both the sources will be gathered using the FES Questionnaire, proposed by Steelman et al (2004) in their validation study of the FES. 3.2 Employee Commitment (Dependent Variable) For the purpose of this study employee commitment has been defined as an employeeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s psychological attachment to his/her organization. Mainly the three component model of employee commitment by Herscovitch (2002) is used, which says that the commitment level itself consists of three parts; affective, continuance and normative commitment. Somers (1995) defined Affective commitment as an employeeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s emotional attachment to an organizational goals and values. Normative commitment is a perceived duty to support the organization and its activities, whereas; continuance commitment is however interacted with affective commitment in predicting job withdrawal intentions and absenteeism. The level of employee commitment was measured using the employee commitment questionnaire by John Meyer Natalie Allen (1991). Figure 3.1: The Theoretical Relationship between Feedback Environment and Employee Commitment with the Mediating Effect of Role Clarity/Ambiguity 3.3 Role Clarity/Ambiguity (Mediating Variable) Role clarity is defined as the subjective feeling of having as much or not as much role relevant information as the person would like to have Lyons (1971). Or simply knowing the tasks and expectations of oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s job is known as Role Clarity. From the previous studies there appeared a relationship between feedback and employee commitment with the mediating effect of role clarity/ambiguity, and it was conceived in this study that the quality of feedback environment leads to role clarity or ambiguity as feedback serves the purpose of clarifying an employeeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s role which leads to employee commitment (Mathieu Zajac 1990, Dunham, Grube, Castaneda 1994). Role Clarity was measured using the standardized questionnaire proposed by Rizzo et al (1970). 3.4 Hypotheses: The following seven hypotheses were tested to explore the link between the following: Supervisory Feedback and Subordinateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Role Clarity Coworker Feedback and Incumbentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Role Clarity Feedback Environment and Employee commitment Role Clarity and Employee commitment 3.5 Hypotheses Statements Hypothesis 1: Ho: There is no relationship between supervisory feedback and subordinateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s role clarity Hypothesis 1: H1: There is a relationship between supervisory feedback and subordinateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s role clarity Hypothesis 2: Ho: There is no relationship between coworker feedback and employee role clarity Hypothesis 2: H1: There is a relationship between coworker feedback and employee role clarity Hypothesis 3: Ho: There is no relationship between feedback environment and employee role clarity Hypothesis 3: H1: There is a relationship between feedback environment and employee role clarity Hypothesis 4: Ho: There is no relationship between supervisory feedback and employee commitment Hypothesis 4: H1: There is a relationship between supervisory feedback and employee commitment Hypothesis 5: Ho: There is no relationship between coworker feedback and employee commitment Hypothesis 5: H1: There is a relationship between coworker feedback and employee commitment Hypothesis 6: Ho: There is no relationship between feedback environment and employee commitment Hypothesis 6: H1: There is a relationship between feedback environment and employee commitment Hypothesis 7: Ho: There is no relationship between employee role clarity and employee commitment Hypothesis 7: H1: There is a relationship between employee role clarity and employee commitment Chapter 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research Design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing needed information. Having identified the variables of the study and developing the theoretical framework, the next step was to design the research in a way that the required data could be gathered and analyzed to arrive at a solution. A Survey was conducted, based on a questionnaire. The term questionnaire refers to a list of questions, usually printed, and submitted for replies that can be analyzed for usable information. 4.1 Purpose of the Study The research was of hypothesis-testing in nature. The characteristics of variables and their relationship were defined in the previous section. Hypotheses were formulated on the basis of relationships between the two main variables (feedback environment and employee commitment). Researches have shown that there is positive relationship between feedback environment and employee commitment. Those studies were conducted in different parts of the world and the current research is based on the hypotheses which are to be tested to find if there is a positive relationship between the said variables. 4.2 Type of Investigation The purpose of our research was to find out if there is relation between variables, the type of investigation chosen was correlation. 4.3 Extent of Researcher Interference with the Study The primary data was collected through the questionnaire. The data was collected in natural environment and the researcherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s interference was minimal. 4.4 Study Settings The research was conducted in natural environment where work proceeds normally, i.e. in non-contrived settings. The study was based on Field Experiment where all activities were occurring in natural work environment. 4.5 Unit of Analysis In this study, individuals were studied separately. Research team studied the feedback received from the two sources (supervisor and coworker) and through the questionnaire investigated the relevant variables and their relationship. 4.6 Sampling A sample is a subset of a larger population that contains its major characteristics. In this step the following decisions were taken: Who is to be sampled (sampling unit) How large a sample should be (sample size) How will sample units be selected (sampling technique) 4.7 Sampling Unit To get the representation from all levels of management and all types of organizations, employees form each layer of management were selected as sample from different organizations ranging from manufacturing to service, both from public and private sectors. Responses were gathered from the employees of the following organizations: Askari Bank, Balochistan Teachersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Training Academy, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Cantonment Hospital, Chiltan Ghee Mills, Civil Secretariat, Concern Worldwide, Habib Bank Ltd, Mercy Crops, National Bank, PTCL, Islamabad Electric Supply Company (QESCO), SME Bank, Sui Southern Gas Company Ltd (SSGC), Telecard, Telenor, UNDP and Warid Telecom 4.8 Sample Size The sample size for the study was 200. Employees from each of the above-mentioned organization were asked to respond the questionnaires. 4.9 Sampling Technique Probability sampling was used for the research; in such type of sampling each member of population has an equal chance of becoming a sample. 4.10 The Questionnaire The Questionnaire had the following sections: 4.10.1 Section-1 (Demographics) The first section investigated about the respondentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s demographical characteristics including: Age Gender Marital Status Qualification Managerial level Nature of work Experience in years The respondents were not asked to mention their names or disclose their identity and it was ensured to keep the information confidential. 4.10.2 Section-2 3 (Supervisory and Coworker Feedback Measurement) These sections contained questions about the supervisory and coworker feedback received by the respondents focusing on the following dimensions: Source credibility Feedback quality Feedback delivery Favorable feedback Unfavorable feedback Source availability Promoting feedback seeking The items of this section were obtained from the validation study of feedback environment (Steelman et al, 2004). 4.10.3 Section-4 (Employee commitment Measurement) This section contained questions about the level of employee commitment of the respondents. 4.10.4 Section-5 (Role Clarity Measurement) This section contained questions measuring the Role Clarity of the respondents. 4.11 Data Collection In this phase the research moved from papers to the field. Data was gathered in the form of responses from the respondents. Questionnaire was used as a tool to collect data and 100% of the respondents were surveyed through it. As mentioned above different organizations from public and private sector were visited to collect the responses. Questionnaires were distributed and taken back from the respondents after two to three days. Total time taken to complete the data collection process was two weeks. The respondents were guided about filling the questionnaires and the queries were responded properly. Chapter 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5. Hypothesis Testing All seven hypotheses of the study were tested on the following parameters: Confidence level: (1-ÃŽÂ ±) = 0.95 (95%) Level of Significance: ÃŽÂ ± = 0.05 Statistic used: t-statistic Sample size: n = 200 Table 5.1: Results of Hypothesis Testing Hypotheses t-calculated t-tabulated Computation Result 1 2.20 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 2 1.97 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 3 2.13 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 4 3.74 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 5 6.88 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 6 6.18 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 7 1.99 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho Where: tcal = the calculated value of t-statistic ttab = the tabulated value of t-statistic It is clear from the results of table 5.1, that all seven alternative hypotheses were accepted as the value of t-calculated found be higher than the value of t-tabulated regarding each hypothesis. This shows that there is a link between each of the independent variable (feedback from supervisor and coworker source, feedback environment and role clarity) with the dependent variable (employee commitment). 5.1 Correlation Analysis The second analysis involved regressing each of the predictors on the outcome variable i.e. employee commitment. The results are presented in table 5.2 A correlation matrix was developed for Supervisory Feedback, Coworker feedback and Role clarity with Employee Commitment. According to the results, all the three variables were positively associated with Employee Commitment. The association represents a positive linear relationship between the dependent variable; Employee Commitment and each of the independent variables. Table 5.2: Correlation Matrix for Employee Commitment Variable Supervisory Feedback Coworker feedback Role Clarity Commitment Supervisory Feedback 1.000 0.534** 0.123** 0.257** Coworker feedback 0.534** 1.000 0.139** 0.439** Role Clarity 0.123** 0.139** 1.000 0.097** Commitment 0.257** 0.439** 0.097** 1.000 ** p Coworker feedback was most strongly associated with Employee Commitment (0.439), followed by supervisory feedback (0.257) and role clarity (0.097). All relationships were statistically significant at p The correlation analysis of employee commitment as shown in table 5.1 indicates that all the associations (between x and y variables) were positive. This signifies that a positive linear relationship exists between x and y variable. Coworker feedback was most strongly related with employee commitment, followed by role clarity and supervisory feedback. All relations were statistically significant at 0.01 levels. 5.3 Regression Analysis The value of R2 was 0.195. The first independent variable, coworker feedback [0.419, P Table 5.3: Regression Analysis of Feedback Environment at workplace (Dependent Variable= Employee Commitment Variable Coefficient Standard Error Standardized Beta Intercept 1.783** 0.262 - Supervisory Feedback 0.029** 0.077 0.029 Coworker feedback 0.388** 0.071 0.419 Role Clarity

Employee Training and Development Essay -- Human Resources Business Ma

Organisations attain competitive advantage through the utilization of skills and knowledge of their employees (Bach and Sisson 2000).According to Subedi (2006:90), the highest value for training as perceived by managers, supervisors and employees was the ‘need for performance improvement’. If this is true then why is it that organisations and individuals still do not invest in training? Studies show that despite the recognition that training offers an avenue for development of skills, enhancement of productivity, increase in individual and organisational performance (Pride et al 2009; Bulut and Culha 2010), it is still quite rare in practice (Lengermann 1996).While some organisations invest in training, others find it more practical to poach employees, subcontract or engage temporary lower skilled workers (Bach and Sisson 2000). Cost, fear of poaching, poorly designed training programs, inability to ascertain economic returns and measure effectiveness of training are recognized as some of the reasons why organisations and individuals do not invest in training (Bach and Sisson 2000; Lloyd 2002; Jameson 2000; Van den Bossche et al 2010). On the other hand, while individuals may acquire new skills in order to be better positioned in the labour market (Grugulis 2006), organisations invest in training to obtain control also known as monopsony power (Booth and Zoega 2000), achieve competitive advantage (Bach and Sisson 2000) and to gain employee commitment (Bulut and Culha 2010). This essay examines benefits of training and development and possible reasons to why organisations and individuals are reluctant to invest in training. It also looks at the two main commonly practised approaches to training in relation to how they influen... .../www.traintogain.gov.uk/Helping_Your_Business/ttgincontext/ (Accessed 9 Nov.2010). U.S Department of Labour (2009). Occupational Outlook Handbook 2009: An Up to Date Guide to Today’s Job Market, New York: Skyhorse Publishing Inc. pp. 60-65. UKCES: UK commission for employment and skills (2010). National Employer Skills Survey for England 2010: Key findings report. http://www.ukces.org.uk/upload/pdf/NESS%20Key%20findings%202009_2.pdf (Accessed 12 Nov. 2010). Van den Bossche, P., Segers, M., and Jansen, N., (2010). ‘Transfer of Training: The Role of Feedback in Supportive Social Networks’ International Journal of Training and Development, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 81-94. Wickramasinghe, V.M. (2006) ‘Training Objectives, Transfer, Validation and Evaluation: A Sri Lankan Study’. The International Journal of Training and Development, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 227-247.

Employee Training and Development Essay -- Human Resources Business Ma

Organisations attain competitive advantage through the utilization of skills and knowledge of their employees (Bach and Sisson 2000).According to Subedi (2006:90), the highest value for training as perceived by managers, supervisors and employees was the ‘need for performance improvement’. If this is true then why is it that organisations and individuals still do not invest in training? Studies show that despite the recognition that training offers an avenue for development of skills, enhancement of productivity, increase in individual and organisational performance (Pride et al 2009; Bulut and Culha 2010), it is still quite rare in practice (Lengermann 1996).While some organisations invest in training, others find it more practical to poach employees, subcontract or engage temporary lower skilled workers (Bach and Sisson 2000). Cost, fear of poaching, poorly designed training programs, inability to ascertain economic returns and measure effectiveness of training are recognized as some of the reasons why organisations and individuals do not invest in training (Bach and Sisson 2000; Lloyd 2002; Jameson 2000; Van den Bossche et al 2010). On the other hand, while individuals may acquire new skills in order to be better positioned in the labour market (Grugulis 2006), organisations invest in training to obtain control also known as monopsony power (Booth and Zoega 2000), achieve competitive advantage (Bach and Sisson 2000) and to gain employee commitment (Bulut and Culha 2010). This essay examines benefits of training and development and possible reasons to why organisations and individuals are reluctant to invest in training. It also looks at the two main commonly practised approaches to training in relation to how they influen... .../www.traintogain.gov.uk/Helping_Your_Business/ttgincontext/ (Accessed 9 Nov.2010). U.S Department of Labour (2009). Occupational Outlook Handbook 2009: An Up to Date Guide to Today’s Job Market, New York: Skyhorse Publishing Inc. pp. 60-65. UKCES: UK commission for employment and skills (2010). National Employer Skills Survey for England 2010: Key findings report. http://www.ukces.org.uk/upload/pdf/NESS%20Key%20findings%202009_2.pdf (Accessed 12 Nov. 2010). Van den Bossche, P., Segers, M., and Jansen, N., (2010). ‘Transfer of Training: The Role of Feedback in Supportive Social Networks’ International Journal of Training and Development, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 81-94. Wickramasinghe, V.M. (2006) ‘Training Objectives, Transfer, Validation and Evaluation: A Sri Lankan Study’. The International Journal of Training and Development, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 227-247.